Historically, military activities have had profoundly adverse effects on civilians, military personnel, infrastructure, and the environment. It seems timely to be writing this blog as the devastating Russia-Ukraine conflict is unfolding, which is causing environmental pollution, including soil contamination, especially due to the Russian targeting of Ukrainian military infrastructure which will lead to toxic gas and particulate matter leaking into the environment.
In this post, I will cover some major sources of soil contamination from war activities, their health effects, and uneven spatial distribution across areas affected by armed conflict. Military activities influence the soil environment during peace times as well as during conflict, such as in military training areas during manufacturing activities, and the dumping of ammunition which can alter the physical, biological and chemical characteristics of the soil.
Conventional explosives
The manufacture, testing, and use of explosives are responsible for toxic effluents released into the soil. Soil pollution largely stems from the usage of nitroaromatic explosive compounds such as TNT, or Trinitrotoluene, as these compounds are easily absorbed by plants or leach into groundwater and soils due to their chemical properties of resisting volatilization, biodegradation, and hydrolysis. TNT is a synthetic chemical that is widely used in U.S. military munitions that tends to persist in soils. As of 2020, TNT has been identified at 34 sites on the EPA National Priorities List in the USA (EPA, n.d.). Humans can be exposed to TNT by eating crops grown in these contaminated soils.
Another major source of soil contamination from explosives is landmines. The detonation of landmines causes negative impacts on soil with metal and plastic fragments and explosive residues. When a landmine explodes or the casing corrodes, toxic pollutants leach into soil and can be easily absorbed by roots and affect plant growth. Libya is among countries that have experienced severe landmine impacts. Al-Traboulsi & Alaib (2020)'s study in Beghazi, a city in Libya determined the phytotoxicity of soil contaminated with residues of a recently exploded mine during an armed conflict in 2014-2015. The researchers concluded that seed germination and seedling growth of field beans Vicia faba was inversely correlated to soil heavy metal content due to contamination from the landmine, along with toxic effects of other pollutants like TNT and RDX (cylonite).
Chemical warfare agents
Chemical warfare agents include compounds that incapacitate an enemy such as nerve agents. For example, mustard gas or sulfur mustard is used during armed conflict to cause cytotoxic and blistering effects on exposed skin. It can cause acute and delayed health effects even 40 years after exposure. After entering the soil, mustard gas undergoes degradation arising mainly from chemical hydrolysis (a reaction where a water molecule breaks one or more bonds). The resulting compounds are called mustard gas hydrolysis products or MGHPs.
These compounds have a significant toxic effect on soil microorganisms, inhibit the enzymatic activity of soils, and slow biochemical processes in soil. For example, soil microbial fermentative activity decreased in soils contaminated with mustard gas, as indicated by the drop in soil respiration rate from 9% to 92%, suggesting a deceleration in mineralization processes of organic substances in soil. This affects the stability and health of soil as a biological system (Medvedeva et al., 2008).
Nuclear explosions
After a nuclear explosion, fine particles with radionuclide contaminants can be transported long distances in air currents before depositing on soil, thus increasing the potential for wide-scale pollution over long distances. Soils contaminated with radionuclides often become degraded and lose their ability to produce good quality agricultural crops. Plants grown in contaminated soils can absorb the radionuclides and enter the food chain.
After World War 2, many countries engaged in nuclear testing before the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted by 122 states in 2017. From 1945 to 2017, more than 2,000 nuclear test explosions were conducted around the world and more than 60 sites globally bear the scars of these tests (ICAN, n.d.). These nuclear tests dispersed radioactive particles far and wide into the air, water, and soils. The dangerous legacy of nuclear weapons testing has affected and continues to affect marginalized groups, raising the issue of environmental injustice.
These tests were often conducted in sites near low-income, racial minority, or indigenous communities, a phenomenon which has been termed "nuclear colonialism". For example, US nuclear testing in the Pacific Northwest has disproportionately affected the health of Native Americans through their exposure to a radionuclide contaminated environment from the Hanford nuclear weapons production site (Hsuan, n.d.). Indigenous and local communities in Marshall islands where the US also conducted nuclear testing have been facing a range of health issues from miscarriages to birth defects. Cleanup efforts have not been sufficient and dilapidated infrastructure poses an ongoing risk of further exposure for present-day communities. The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act is a step forward as it provides compensations for communities affected by nuclear weaponry testing and uranium mining, although these funds have been deemed insufficient.
The deep scars war activities leave on people and the environment highlights the urgent need to work towards a world of peace, justice, and harmony for all, both human and non-human. Ongoing wars in recent times from the Palestine conflict, Myanmar protests, and the Russia-Ukraine conflict underscore that war is always around the corner and the work towards a peaceful world is an ongoing, uphill task.
References
Al-Traboulsi, M., & Alaib, M. A. (2021). Phytotoxic effects of soil contaminated with explosive residues of landmines on germination and growth of Vicia faba L. Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2021.1952765
Fact Sheet – 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT). (2021). Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
FAO and UNEP. (2021). Global assessment of soil pollution: Report. Chapter 3: Sources of soil pollution. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4894en
Hsuan, H. (2021, August 18). Nuclear colonialism. Environment & Society Portal. https://www.environmentandsociety.org/exhibitions/risk-and-militarization/nuclear-colonialism
Medvedeva, N., Polyak, Yu., Kuzikova, I., Orlova, O., & Zharikov, G. (2008). The effect of mustard gas on the biological activity of soil. Environmental Research, 106(3), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.04.003
The Human Cost of Nuclear Testing. (n.d.). ICAN. https://www.icanw.org/nuclear_tests
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